LAYOUT OF STREET, ROAD CROSSING AND LIGHTING

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (SECTION-B)
By
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi

LECTURE NO: 25
TOPIC: LAYOUT OF STREET, ROAD CROSSING AND LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION:
The theme of current lecture is, “layout of street, road crossing and lighting”. The main purpose of this theme is to get a clear understanding about the physical features of a street along with its’ major elements. The term street itself is a very vast term and it is explained and interpreted in various ways. Similarly the characteristics of streets are also plentiful. Thus in the following all these aspects of streets shall be discussed in details.

WHAT IS STREET?
A Street is a paved public thoroughfare in the built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A Street is characterized by the degree and quality of street life it facilitates, whereas a road serves primarily as a through passage for vehicles or pedestrians.[1]

STREET FURNITURE:
‘Street furniture’[2] is a collective term for objects and pieces of equipment installed on streets and roads for various purposes, including traffic barrier, benches, bollards, post boxes, phone boxes, streetlamps, street lighting, traffic lights, traffic signs, bus stops, grit bins, tram stops, taxi stands, public lavatories, fountains and memorials, and waste receptacles. An important consideration in the design of street furniture is how it affects road safety.

STREET NAME SIGNS identify streets, for the benefit of visitors, especially postal workers and the emergency services. They may also indicate the district in which the street lies.

A BENCH is essentially a chair made for more than one person, usually found in the central part of any settlement (such as plazas and parks). They are often provided by the local councils or contributors to serve as a place to rest and admire the view. Armrests in between are sometimes provided to prevent people lying down and/or to prevent people from sitting too close to someone who likes to keep some distance.

BOLLARDS are posts, short poles, or pillars, with the purpose of preventing the movement of vehicles onto sidewalks or grass etc.

POST BOXES, also known as MAIL BOXES, are found throughout the world, and have a variety of forms: round pillar style found in Japan and the U.K. (the two feature a difference in that the Japanese version has a round lid while the UK version is flat); rectangular blue boxes in the United States; red and yellow boxes with curved tops in Australia, some on poles. The Canadian version is a red box with a slanted back top.

PHONE BOXES or TELEPHONE BOOTHS are prominent in most cities around the world, and while ranging drastically in the amount of cover they offer users, e.g. many only cover the phone itself while others are full booths, are instantly recognisable. The widespread use of mobile phones has resulted in a decrease in their numbers.

STREETLAMPS are designed to illuminate the surrounding area at night, serving not only as a deterrent to criminals but more importantly to allow people to see where they're going.

TRAFFIC LIGHTS (or TRAFFIC SIGNALS) usually include three colours: green to represent "go", amber to inform drivers that the colour will alternate shortly and red to tell drivers to stop. They are generally mounted on poles or gantries or hang from wires.

TRAFFIC SIGNS warn drivers of upcoming road conditions such as a "blind curve", speed limits, etc. Direction signs tell the reader the way to a location, although the sign's information can be represented in a variety of ways from that of a diagram to written instructions. Direction signs are usually mounted on poles. Recently, illumination has started to be added in order to aid nighttime users.

PUBLIC LAVATORIES allow pedestrians the opportunity to use restroom facilities, either for free or for a per-use fee.

STREETS TYPOLOGY:

Streets are of many types and there are different names attributed to a street. For instance street can be termed as an alley, lane, avenue, boulevard etc. In addition there are streets names such as Main Street, side streets, two way streets, numbered streets, walkways and cul-de-sacs etc. Similarly there are processes attached to streets such as traffic calming etc.

An ALLEY[3] or ALLEYWAY is a narrow, pedestrian lane found in urban areas which usually runs between or behind buildings. In older cities and towns in Europe, alleys are often what is left of a medieval street network, or a right of way or ancient footpath in an urban setting. In older urban development, alleys were built to allow for deliveries such as coal to the rear of houses. Alleys may be paved, or simply dirt tracks. Blind alleys have no outlet at one end and are thus a cul-de-sac.

Many modern urban developments do not incorporate alleys. In some locations installation of gates to restrict alleyway access have significantly reduced burglary rates. On blocks where gates are not installed, residents sometimes erect home-made barricades at alley entrances.

Alleys which are narrow pavements between/behind buildings can be known as SNICKETS, GINNELS, JENNELS or ALLEYWAYS. This has led to the word SNICKELWAY, originally in York, though the term has become more widespread.

In Sussex the term TWITTEN is commonly used whilst in Liverpool the term ENTRY or JIGGER is more common.

The word JITTY is also often used in Derbyshire and Leicestershire.

GULLEY is the term sometimes used in the Black Country.

In Karachi and Mumbai the term ‘PATLEE GALLEE’ (Narrow Street) is usually used as an admonition for cowards to runaway.

In Nottinghamshire TWICHELL is a common name.

In Scotland the terms CLOSE, WYND AND PEND are commonplace.

JENNEL is local to Sheffield.

In Glasgow, Edinburgh and Belfast, and the surrounding areas, certain alleys are known as ENTRIES, ENTRY, AND ANTRIM.

In Australia and Canada the terms LANE, LANEWAY and SERVICEWAY are also used.

In the United States and Canada alleys are sometimes known as REAR LANES or BACK LANES because they are at the back of buildings.

The word LANE[4] has several meanings and types, it can be a portion of a paved road which is intended for a single line of vehicles and is marked by white or yellow lines or a lane is a narrow road or street, usually lacking a shoulder or a median; this is typically applied to roads, but can also be applied to urban streets or areas that used to be streets.

A TRAFFIC LANE OR TRAVEL LANE is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, not including shoulders and auxiliary lanes.

A THROUGH LANE or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead.

A CARRIAGEWAY is a series of lanes (or part of a road) in which vehicles travel.

A LOADING LANE is an area next to a curb, which is reserved for loading and unloading passengers. It may be marked by a "LOADING ONLY" sign or a yellow or white curb.

A TRAM LANE is a lane reserved for the use of buses, trams and taxicabs.

AN EXPRESS LANE of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps.

AN AUXILIARY LANE along a highway or motorway connects slip roads, with the entrance ramp or acceleration lane from one interchange leading to the exit ramp or deceleration lane of the next.

A DECELERATION LANE is a paved or semi-paved lane adjacent to the primary road or street. It is used to improve traffic safety by allowing drivers to pull off the main road and decelerate safely in order to turn, so that the traffic behind the turning vehicle is not slowed or halted. Deceleration lanes are primarily found in suburban settings.

A FIRE LANE is the area next to a curb, which is reserved for firefighting equipment, ambulances, or other emergency vehicles. Parking in these areas, often marked by red lines, usually warrants a parking ticket.

A PASSING LANE is often provided on steep mountain grades, in order to allow smaller vehicles to pass larger, slower ones. This is sometimes called a climbing lane if on the uphill side. Passing lanes may also be provided on long stretches of other roadway. On two-lane roads, passing in the lane of oncoming traffic is sometimes allowed given a long enough straightaway, if the broken line is on the normal side of travel.

A COLLECTOR LANE of a road is used for slower moving traffic and has more access to exits/off ramps.

A TRANSFER LANE of a road is used to move from express lanes to collector lanes, or vice-versa; it is somewhat similar to an auxiliary lane.

A MERGE LANE is a lane or onramp used to merge two flows of traffic into one, with the merge lane being the lane that disappears at the end of the merging area. Merge lane lengths depend mainly on the speed differential of the two merging flows, as the slower flow has to use the lane to accelerate.

THE EMERGENCY LANE of a road (also known as the breakdown lane, shoulder or hard shoulder) is reserved for breakdowns, and for emergency vehicles. The inner boundary of the lane often features rumble strips in order to physically warn drowsy or inattentive drivers that they are drifting off the roadway. This feature is seen especially often on highways and motorways, where the minimally-stimulating and monotonous nature of high-speed driving at night increases the chances for driver disorientation and serious injury or death if an accident does take place.

A DESIGNATED BICYCLE LANE is a portion of the roadway or shoulder designated for the exclusive or preferential use of bicyclists. This designation is indicated by special word and/or symbol markings on the pavement and "BIKE LANE" signs.

A BUS LANE is reserved for buses providing public transportation on a fixed route, sometimes with overhead catenary for trolleybuses. In some countries, bus lanes may also be used by some other traffic, such as taxis, bicycles and motorbikes.

A TRUCK LANE (United States) or crawler lane (Great Britain) is a lane provided on long and steep uphill stretches of high-speed roads to enhance the ability of vehicles which can maintain speed up the incline to pass those vehicles (usually heavy trucks) which cannot. In addition, these lanes are intended to optimize pavement performance and minimize pavement fatigue.

A REVERSIBLE LANE, which uses overhead lights, signs, poles or barriers to indicate the current direction of travel it is to be used for. Typically, it is used at rush hour to accommodate extra traffic, and at other times as a center turn lane. In between, there is approximately one hour where no traffic is allowed. While the idea is very simple, the term suicide lane became a common slang description for this design, because many people ignored their driving or the lights. Because of their history of numerous accidents and collisions, reversible lanes are rarely used now.

AN OPERATIONAL LANE OR AUXILIARY LANE is an extra lane on the entire length of highway between interchanges, giving drivers more time to merge in or out.

AN OVERTAKING LANE is the lane furthest from the shoulder of a multi-lane carriageway (sometimes called the fast lane, although this is deprecated by the authorities).

AN AVENUE[5] is a straight road with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side, which is used, to emphasize the "coming to," or arrival at a landscape or architectural feature. In most cases, the trees planted in an avenue will be all of the same species, so as to give uniform appearance along the full length of the avenue. The French term, allée, is confined normally to avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens. In urban or suburban settings, "avenue" is often a qualifier for a road name, along with "lane", "street", "way", etc. In some cities which have a grid plan, such as Manhattan, there is a convention that avenues run in a north-south direction, while streets run in an east-west direction, or vice versa.

BULEVARD[6] has several generally accepted meanings. It was first introduced in the French in 1435 as boloard and has since been altered into boulevard; As a type of road, a boulevard is usually a wide, multi-lane arterial thoroughfare, divided with a median down the center, and roadways along each side as slow travel and parking lanes and for bicycle and pedestrian usage, often with an above-average quality of landscaping and scenery. Some people also use the term boulevard to refer to the division or central reservation in a road. It can consist of anything from a simple thick curb of concrete, to a wide strip of grass, to a thoroughly landscaped space of trees, shrubs, and other foliage; in urban areas, boulevards can also contain public art or memorials. Wide boulevards also sometimes serve as rights-of-way for trams or light rail systems. Another use for the term boulevard is for a strip of grass between a sidewalk and a road, and located above a curb. Though in Europe the two are often adjacent, many residential neighbourhoods in the United States and Canada feature strips of grass or other greenery between the sidewalk and the road, placed in order to both beautify the street and to provide a buffer between vehicles and pedestrians.

MAIN STREET[7] is the metonym for a generic street name of the primary retail street of a village, town, or small city in many parts of the world. It is usually a focal point for shops and retailers in the central business district, and is most often used in reference to retailing and socialising. Main Street is commonly used in the United States, Canada, and Ireland, some parts of Scotland and also in some countries in central Europe.

HIGH STREET is the common term in the United Kingdom.

In Jamaica as well as North East England and some sections of Canada, the usual term is FRONT STREET. In Cornwall, the equivalent is FORE STREET.

In some larger cities, there may be several Main Streets, each relating to a specific neighborhood or formerly separate city, rather than the city as a whole.

In Hong Kong, "Main Street" can be translated in Chinese into "ZHENG JIE" or "DA JIE"; however, in Hong Kong, officially "CENTRE STREET" is a branch road off Sheung Wan District.

In England, the terms "MARKET STREET" or "MARKET PLACE" are often used to designate the heart of a town or city, as is the more common High Street (certainly in newer urban developments, or towns or cities which were not original market towns).

HIGH STREET is often the name of a fairly busy street with small shops on either side, often in towns and villages.

In Sweden, almost all towns and cities have their own main street, a street called "STORGATAN" (Literally means, "THE BIG STREET"). They are typically surrounded by stores and restaurants, and in most cases open for pedestrians only, where no vehicles are allowed.

Likewise in Norway, this type of street is called "GÅGATE" (Literally means "WALKING STREET").

JALAN BESAR (roughly translated from Malay as "MAIN ROAD") is a common street name used in Malaysia when referring to main streets of older urban centres in the country. Such main streets were originally constructed during British colonisation, and were named in English as "Main Street" or "Main Road", depending on the size and nature of the urban centre.

In rural Sindh there are many small villages or sub districts or taluka level settlements that have one main central street bazaar (market) also known as “DHAK BAZAAR” (literally means a “COVERED MARKET”) which is an example of Main Street in our local context of Pakistan.

A SIDE STREET[8] is a street that intersects a main street and ends there. Most side streets are lined with residences. Side streets when built are mostly intended only for the traffic of their residents and visitors.

A TWO-WAY STREET[9] is a street that allows vehicles to travel in both directions. On most two-way streets, a line is painted down in the middle of the road to remind drivers to stay on their side of the road. If there is no line, a car must stay on the appropriate side and watch for cars coming in the opposite direction and prepare to pull over to let them pass. A two-way street can also be used as an idiomatic metaphor to indicate that something goes both ways. For example, "Communication within a relationship must be a two- way street that is heavily traveled in both directions."

A NUMBERED STREET[10] is a street whose name is a number rather than a worded name. Numbered streets, are commonly identified with names like "street," "avenue," etc., are among the most common street names found in North America. Numbered streets exist in cities which have grid-based naming systems, with numbers usually starting at 1 and then proceeding in numerical order. Some cities also have lettered street names. For example, Washington, D.C., has streets identified as a letter followed by "Street," such as Street A. New York has avenues titled "Avenue" followed by the respective letter of the alphabet, such as Avenue D.

A WALKWAY[11] is an umbrella term for all formal surfaces which support the act of walking. This includes sidewalks, trails, paths, stairs, ramps and open passageways. The walkway is a path for walking that is generally not enclosed. It can be at ground level, or it can be elevated, such as a boardwalk, or a floating dock/trail. It can be a simple constructed path or something more complex to cross a road or a body of water. An open pedestrian overpass or a special tunnel is also an element of a walkway. It can also be used to board and remove passengers from aircraft to the terminal building.

A CUL-DE-SAC[12] is a dead-end street with only one inlet/outlet. In urban planning culs-de-sac are created to limit through-traffic in residential areas. While some culs-de-sac provide no possible passage except in and out of their road entry, others allow cyclists, pedestrians or other non-automotive traffic to pass through connecting easements or paths. The word "cul-de-sac" and its variants, "dead end" and "no exit", have inspired metaphorical uses in literature and in culture too.

TRAFFIC CALMING[13] is a set of strategies used by urban planners and traffic engineers which aim to slow down or reduce traffic, thereby improving safety for pedestrians and bicyclists as well as improving the environment for residents. Traffic calming was traditionally justified on the grounds of pedestrian safety and reduction of noise and local air pollution which are side effects of the traffic. However, streets have many social and recreational functions which are severely impaired by car traffic.

The Livable Streets study found that residents of streets with light traffic had, on average, three more friends and twice as many acquaintances as the people on streets with heavy traffic which was otherwise similar in dimensions, income, etc.

For much of the twentieth century, streets were designed by engineers who were charged only with ensuring traffic flow and not with fostering the other functions of streets.

The basis for traffic calming is broadening traffic engineering to include designing for these functions. There are 3 "Es" that traffic engineers refer to when discussing traffic calming: Engineering, (community) Education, and (police) Enforcement.

Because neighborhood traffic management studies have shown that often it is the residents themselves who are contributing to the perceived speeding problem within the neighborhood, it is stressed that the most effective traffic calming plans will entail all three components, and that engineering measures alone will not produce satisfactory results.

A number of visual changes to roads are being made, to many streets, to bring about more attentive driving, reduced speeds, reduced crashes, and greater tendency to yield to pedestrians.

Visual traffic calming includes lane narrowing (9-10'), road diets (reduction in lanes), use of trees next to streets, on-street parking, and buildings placed in urban fashion close to streets.

Physical devices include speed humps, speed cushions, and speed tables, sized for the desired speed. Such measures slow cars to between 10 and 25 miles (15-40 km) per hour. Most devices are made of asphalt or concrete but rubber traffic calming products are emerging as an effective alternative with several advantages.

TRAFFIC CALMING CAN INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING ENGINEERING MEASURES:
Narrower Traffic Lanes — streets can be narrowed by extending the sidewalk, adding bollards or planters, or adding a bike lane or parking. Narrowing traffic lanes differs from other road treatments by making slower speeds seem more natural to drivers and less of an artificial imposition, as opposed to most other treatments used that physically force lower speeds or restrict route choice.

Speed Bumps, sometimes split or offset in the middle to help emergency vehicles reduce delay.

Speed Humps, parabolic devices that are less aggressive than speed bumps and used on residential streets. Speed Tables, long flat-topped speed humps that slow cars more gradually than humps. Speed Cushions, a series of three small speed humps that slow cars down but allow emergency vehicles to straddle them so as not to slow response time. Chicanes, which create a horizontal deflection causing vehicles to slow as they would for a curve; Raised Pedestrian Crossings and Raised Intersection.

Curb Extensions (also called bull bouts) which narrow the width of the roadway at Pedestrian Crossings. Pedestrian Refuges or small islands in the middle of the street; Median DIVERTERS to prevent left turns or through movements into a residential area; Changing the surface material or texture (for example, the selective use of Brick or Cobblestone); Additional give way (yield) signs; Converting One-Way Streets into Two-Way Streets. Chokers, which are curb extensions that narrow the roadway to a single lane at points.

Allowing parking on one or both sides of a street, converting an intersection into a Cul-De-Sac or Dead End, Boom Barrier, restricting through traffic to authorised vehicles only. Close streets to create the Pedestrian Zones. Watchman traffic calming system etc.

ROAD CROSSING:
A pedestrian crossing[1] or crosswalk is a designated point on a road at which some means are employed to assist pedestrians wishing to cross. They are designed to keep pedestrians together where they can be seen by motorists, and where they can cross most safely with the flow of vehicular traffic. Pedestrian crossings are often at intersections, but may also be at other points on busy roads that would otherwise be perilous to attempt to cross. They are common near schools or in other areas where there are a large number of children. Crosswalks can be considered a traffic calming technique.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD CROSSING:
Crossings are of various types. The simplest crossings may just consist of some markings on the road surface. These are often called Zebra crossings, referring to the alternate white and black stripes painted on the road surface. Depending on local laws, pedestrians crossing the road may or may not have priority over road traffic when using the crossing. If the pedestrian has priority, then they have an incentive to use the crossing instead of crossing the road at other places. In some countries, pedestrians may not have priority, but may be committing an offence if they cross the road elsewhere. In this respect term Jaywalking is used. Jaywalking[2] is an informal term used to refer to illegal or reckless pedestrian crossing of a roadway. Examples include a pedestrian crossing between intersections (outside a crosswalk, marked or unmarked) without yielding to drivers and starting to cross a crosswalk at a signalized intersection without waiting for a permissive indication to be displayed.

Some crossings have special signals consisting of electric lamps or light-emitting diode (LED) panels. The signals allow pedestrians and road traffic to use the crossing alternately. On some traffic signals, pressing a button is required to trigger the signal. These signals may be integrated into a regular traffic light arrangement or may be on their own if the crossing is not at an intersection. Audible or tactile signals may also be included to assist people who have poor sight. Sites with extremely high traffic or roads where pedestrians are not allowed (freeways or motorways) may instead be crossed pedestrian bridges or tunnels. A variation on the bridge concept, often called a skyway or skywalk, is sometimes implemented in regions that experience inclement weather. In many cities, countdown clocks are being added to give notice to both drivers and pedestrians the time remaining on the crossing signal. Special markings are often made on the road surface, both to direct pedestrians and to prevent motorists from stopping vehicles in the way of foot traffic.

There are many varieties of signal and marking layouts around the world and even within single countries. In the United States, there are many inconsistencies, although the variations are usually minor. There are several distinct types in the United Kingdom, each with their own name. Pedestrian refuges or small islands in the middle of a street may be added when a street is very wide, as these crossings can be too long for some individuals to cross in one cycle. In places where there is very high pedestrian traffic, pedestrian scrambles may be used, which stop vehicular traffic in all directions at the same time. Another relatively widespread variation is the Curb extension (also known as a bulb-out) which narrows the width of the street and is used in combination with crosswalk markings.

STREET LIGHT:
A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. Also, it is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles.

HISTORY OF STREET LIGHTING[14]:
Before incandescent lamps, gas lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps, but later designs employed ignition devices that would automatically strike the flame when the gas supply was activated. The earliest of such street lamps were built in the Arab Empire, especially in Córdoba, Spain.[15]

The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the 'Electric candle', developed by the Russians in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that the electrodes burnt down at the same rate.

Thames Embankment in London had the first electric street lighting in Britain.

The United States was swift in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers. The first street in the UK to be lit by electric light was Mosley Street, in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The street was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp in February, 1879.[16]

First in the United States, and second overall, was the Public Square road system in Cleveland, Ohio, on April 29, 1879. Wabash, Indiana holds the title of being the third electrically-lit city in the world, which took place on February 2, 1880. Four 3,000 candlepower Brush arc lamps suspended over the courthouse rendered the town square "as light as midday."

Kimberley, a city in the centre of South Africa, was the first city in Africa to have electric street lights - first lit on 1 September 1882. In Latin America, San Jose, Costa Rica was the first city; the system was launched on August 9, 1884, with 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant.

Timişoara, in present-day Romania, was the first city in mainland Europe to have electric public lighting on the 12 of November 1884. 731 lamps were used. In 1888 Tamworth, New South Wales, Australia became the first location in the Southern Hemisphere to have electric street lighting, giving the city the title of "First City of Light".

Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of the 19th century, they passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.

Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-intensity discharge lamps. They were often operated in high-voltage series circuits. Series circuits were popular since the higher voltage in these circuits produced more light per watt consumed.

Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could regulate all the lights in an entire district. To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each street lamp had to be equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact.

Early series street lights were equipped with isolation transformers that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later the FILM CUTOUT was invented. The film cutout was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the current through the string became zero, causing the entire voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it as described in Ohm's law.

In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and illumination restored to the rest of the street. (This is the same principle used in Christmas tree lights. The street light circuit contained an automatic device to regulate the voltage in the circuit, preventing the current from increasing as additional lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps.

When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This style of street lighting was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator that separated the lamp and reflector from the light's mounting arm. The insulator was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousands of volts above ground/earth.

Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamps, often HPS high pressure sodium lamps. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity. However when scotopic/photopic light calculations are used, it can be seen how inappropriate HPS lamps are for night lighting. White light sources have been shown to double driver peripheral vision and increase driver brake reaction time at least 25%. When S/P light calculations are used, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. This is now a standard design criterion for Australian roads.

PURPOSES OF STREET LIGHTS:
There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights and placement. Misuse of the different types of lights can make the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety.

BEACON LIGHTS
A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as he comes closer to it and he can adjust his braking and know exactly where to turn if he intends to leave the main road or see if someone is at the intersection.

A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose.

To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by simply placing reflectors at the sides of the road to reflect the light coming from people's headlights.

ROADWAY LIGHTS:
Street lights are not normally intended to illuminate the driving route (headlights are preferred), but to reveal signs and hazards outside of the headlights' beam. Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam.

In these situations (A freeway junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it.

The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified. If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multilane traffic), to avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights it should not be lit intermittently, as this requires repeated eye readjustment which implies eyestrain and temporary blindness when entering and leaving light pools.

In this case the system is designed to eliminate the need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at close regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes from curb to curb. Research a few years ago suggested that by comparison to other countries, more pedestrians are hit by motor vehicles at night in Britain.

The theory behind this was that Britain almost exclusively, used low pressure sodium street lighting, (LPS); unlike the rest of the world that use mercury vapour gas discharge lighting. This was most noticeable when flying in from Europe at night and seeing a warm orange glow when approaching Britain. LPS lighting, being monochromatic, shows pedestrians as shadowy forms, unlike other forms of street lighting. In recognition of this, pedestrian crossings are now lit by additional "white" lighting, and sodium lighting is being replaced by modern types.

SECURITY LIGHTING:
Security lighting is similar to high-intensity lighting on a busy major street, with no pools of light and dark, but with the lighted area extending onto people's property, at least to their front door. This requires a different type of fixture and lens. The increased glare experienced by drivers going through the area might be considered a trade-off for increased security. This is what would normally be used along sidewalks in dense areas of cities. Often unappreciated is that the light from a full moon is brighter than most security lighting.

DANGERS OF STREET LIGHTS:
There are two optical phenomena that need to be recognized in street light installations. The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases. Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey one. The contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle. Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally electrify light poles and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact with the pole.[17]

Some cities have employed the Electrified Cover Safeguard technology which sounds an alarm and flashes a light, to warn the public, when a pole becomes dangerously electrified. There are also physical dangers. Street light stanchions (poles) pose a collision risk to motorists. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (frangible or collapsible supports), protecting them by guardrails, or both. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally topple street lights.

REFERENCES:
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_furniture
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alley
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avenue_(landscape)
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulevard
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_street
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_street
[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-way_street
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbered_street
[11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkway
[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cul-de-sac
[13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_calming
[14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_light
[15] S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London. F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50.
[16] http://home.frognet.net/~ejcov/jwswan.html
[17] http://scienceline.org/2006/08/04/physics-grant-manholes/

[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrian_crossing

[19] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaywalking

LOCATION OF INDUSTRY & RESIDENTIAL AREAS

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B)

By:

RAVINDAR KUMAR

Assistant Professor

Department of Architecture and Planning

NED University of Engineering and Technology

Karachi

LECTURE NO: 24
TOPIC: LOCATION OF INDUSTRY & RESIDENTIAL AREAS

INTRODUCTION:
The theme of current lecture is location of Industry and residential areas. In order to address this theme it is imperative to answer different questions such as: What are the reasons for the location of a particular business or industry in a specific area? Was it just a snap decision or is there more of a science to the decision? This is the subject of location of industry. Similarly it is also significant to know why people decide about living in a particular housing scheme whereas; different types of residences available at variety of locations within city? The answers of these questions are outlined below.

LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES AND FIRMS[1]:
An industry consists of firms that each have common characteristics in terms of the nature of their economic activity. The chemical industry, for example, is made up of hundreds of firms that have the common characteristic of being involved in either dealing with or manufacturing chemicals. These chemicals might be used for a wide variety of different processes, including agriculture, construction, medicines and a wide range of others - textiles, plastics, and paper, cleaning and so on. Individual firms might choose to set up their business in a variety of locations. In some cases, businesses with common characteristics are very widely spread. Other industries tend to have firms that might be clustered in a particular area. The crucial factor in many cases will be locating where costs of production can be minimised. Planning laws and regulations might mean that it is not always possible to set up in the preferred location. The economist (and later sociologist) Alfred Weber (1868-1958) pioneered the work on location of industry way back in 1910. His theory was based on the principle that a business would seek to locate where costs could be minimised. If there were two locations, a and b, where a represented a location where the cost of setting up was lower than b, then the firm would always go to a. Weber was writing at a time when the industrial revolution resulted in a number of large industries being concentrated in certain parts of the UK - coal, steel, shipbuilding, textiles and so on. Whilst the factors that were relevant to firms in those industries are different for many firms in the 21st Century, some of the basic principles he laid down are still relevant. There are a number of factors that will influence where a business will choose to locate.

NEARNESS TO POWER:
Some firms require either a certain type of power/energy source or particular amounts to be able to operate effectively. This means that one consideration for location is somewhere that has relatively easy access to such sources. This might be particularly relevant for a business that uses large amounts of power in the production process. In simple terms, the location has to be in a position to be able to supply the amount of power that a business might need. Some businesses need large amounts of power to be able to produce - this might be much more than is normally available from a domestic supply and so there has to be that source available if location is to be viable. The chemical industry is an example of production that uses large amounts of power. If we use the example of the chemical industry, the production process involved in this industry requires large amounts of gas and electricity. Providing the amount of electricity needed for such processes is not the same as the amount needed by the average house.

NEARNESS TO MARKET:
Access to a market for the good or service produced is an important component for some firms. The market in this context is referring to the customers who buy the good or service produced. In some cases, this can be the general public at large; others might be far narrower. For example, some businesses sell their output to a small number of other businesses. The importance of access to a market depends on the type of business and what it is involved in. For some businesses, being near to customers is essential. One obvious example is a snack bar or café. To survive, such businesses need to be somewhere where customers will regularly pass by. In the case of our chemical firms, nearness to the market might not be quite as important as might be the case for online retailers such as Amazon, where other means of getting to the market are more important (good distribution and communication networks, for example). The importance of being near to the market might also be dictated by the nature of the product produced. Weber identified the importance of this in his original analysis. Weber noted that the ratio of the weight of raw materials to the finished product might be a factor influencing location. We refer to this as 'bulk reducing' or 'bulk increasing' industries. A bulk reducing industry is one where the finished product is less bulky and easier to transport and distribute than the raw materials. Steel is a good example of this type of industry. Steel is made from a combination of coal, iron ore and fluxes which are processed before being combined in a blast furnace where molten steel is then processed into steel slabs, plate and so on. In such circumstances, the cost of transporting the raw materials may be high compared to that of the finished product. A bulk increasing industry is one where the opposite occurs. In this case, the finished product might be more bulky than the raw materials. A good example here is the furniture industry. Completed items of furniture (not flat-packed obviously) tend to be far more bulky than the raw material used to make it.

NEARNESS TO A SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS:
Some firms may rely on a source of raw materials for their business. If these raw materials are nearby, it is pretty much common sense that transport costs can be reduced if the firm is located nearby rather than far away. This might be particularly relevant for bulk reducing firms. In Weber's time, the steel industry tended to be located near to sources of coal (for coking) and supplies of iron ore. If the raw material is not available locally then it may be that a firm chooses to locate near a port, or other point of import, where they can access the raw materials efficiently and at lowest cost. In other cases, the raw material might be less obvious. In certain parts of the UK, there tends to be a relative concentration of certain types of farming. In these cases it may be the quality of the land for arable use that might be important. In other cases it might be that certain types of land and area are more suitable for dairy farming. Even more obvious might be the proximity of many fish-processing plants located near to fishing ports or firms involved in quarrying.

NEARNESS TO A SUPPLY OF LABOUR:
All businesses need labour to operate. In some cases, this labour has to have high levels of skill. Some areas have concentrations of industry in a region and have become known for having a pool of skilled labour available. In such cases, it can save a firm both time and cost locating near to the supply of labour. This can be extended if the local labour supply is relatively cheap. A number of firms in recent years relocating some of their operations to different countries to take advantage of the supplies of skilled and cheap labour that exist: for example, call centres in India and James Dyson's relocation of manufacturing capacity to Malaysia. The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that at the time of the decision by Dyson in 2002, labour costs for a UK worker stood at £9 per hour compared to just £3 in Malaysia. Moreover, UK office rents cost £114 per square metre per year whilst similar rents in Malaysia are priced at just £38 per square metre per year. Certain parts of the country may be associated with certain types of labour. In the City of London, for example, there may be opportunities for firms in the financial industry to access supplies of highly skilled and experienced labour. There are, in addition, a number of specialist business schools in the City that are able to attract good quality teaching and research staff as well as recruiting good quality students. As a result, firms in the locality know that they have access to good quality labour.

PROXIMITY OF OTHER BUSINESSES - EXTERNAL ECONOMIES OF SCALE:
Where industry becomes concentrated in an area, there are generally a number of supporting or ancillary firms set up. In some cases, these firms supply specialised services or products to other firms in the industry. In and around fishing ports, for example, there might be specialist engine services, specialists in marine insurance, firms specialising in processing and distribution and so on. In such cases, any new firm seeking to enter the market might well gain benefits from the fact that the industry is concentrated in that area. In the City, there will be firms that have particular specialisms in different areas of finance, whose expertise can be a major reason for firms locating in the City. These benefits can result in lower average costs (costs per unit). This is called external economies of scale. There might also be other specialist benefits. In our example of the chemical industry, the emergency services are specially trained to deal with potential emergencies that might result from a chemical spill or explosion. In addition, there are specialist firms that deal with the problems of waste and processing of unwanted chemical residues. All of these might be of benefit to a new firm looking to set up in the area.

THE REPUTATION OF AN AREA:
Certain areas of the country have a reputation for particular types of business - this might often be due to its industrial past. Staffordshire is associated with high quality pottery, Nottingham with fine lace, The City for its financial expertise and Sheffield for its steel - just some examples. Any firm linked with those industries setting up in these areas might well be able to trade on the back of the reputation of the area. If a firm that sells cutlery sets up in Sheffield, it may be able to associate its business with the reputation that Sheffield has built up in relation to steel; insurance companies setting up in the City may be able to gain some reputation purely by having a postcode that is linked to the City and so on. The City has a huge reputation for the high quality of its financial services industry. Any firm in the industry setting up in this area will be able to reap the benefits of being associated with this reputation. As the structure of industry in the UK changes in favour of a more service-based economy, the importance of the concentration of industry which was a feature of the old traditional heavy industries that developed after the industrial revolution is declining. Whilst this factor may be seen as being less important it can still be a factor that a firm might consider.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION SERVICES:
Firms that rely on good communications networks either for information transfer or distribution may well look to locate in areas where such facilities exist. This may include high quality road networks, access to trains, airports, ports and so on. Many new industrial estates have been built in out of town areas and major new trunk roads linking these estates with major road networks make locating in these areas worthwhile for some firms. For other firms, speed of information may be the crucial factor in their business. Many city areas were the first to have access to high speed data networks, broadband, cable and satellite services and so on. For a firm in the City, having high speed data access is essential to the transaction of their business. Data transfer is an important part of many businesses in the knowledge economy. Speed of transfer depends on having the right infrastructure in place - not everywhere in the country has access to super fast data transfer, which may affect decisions on location. In other examples, many hotel chains have located in particular areas often near to motorway exits around major cities or airports. Companies like Travelodge, Holiday Inn, Holiday Inn Express, Ibis and Premier Lodges have all appeared in clusters around these exits. They are hoping to take advantage of business travellers who use these main arterial routes.

INCENTIVES:
As the structure of industry changes, different regions of the country might experience different levels of economic growth. In some regions, the decline of old traditional industries like coal and steel has not been offset by a growth in new industries. Unemployment can be a problem in these areas. The EU might play a role in location in offering various incentives to help promote economic growth and regeneration in poor regions of the EU. As a result, various government and EU grants and incentives might be available to persuade firms to locate in these areas. The availability of low rent premises, faster planning permissions, employment subsidies (a sum of money given for every job created), reduced red tape, grants etc. can make a difference to a firm that decides to locate in that area. One of the problems, however, is that there might not be any other natural reasons for a firm to locate in these areas and when the incentives run out there might not be any reason for the firm to remain in the area.

COMPETITION:
Firms will be aware of the extent of the competition in an area when they are looking to locate their business. If there are several other similar businesses in the locality, it might influence their decision about location. Is this a good location decision or not? Being located near to competition can have its disadvantages but might also have some advantages.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR EXPANSION:
Many businesses might be looking for opportunities to expand in the future. Access to land, and the ease with which the business can expand if necessary, might therefore be something that a business will want to find out before making a location decision, or at least as part of a location decision. In some areas of the country, planning permission may be difficult to get - there may be restrictions on expansion into the countryside, various policies to encourage use of derelict land and so on. Whilst this may be of benefit to society as a whole, it is not necessarily the most cost-effective solution for a business. In some areas of the country, land and rental prices can be significant factors in location decisions.

In the south east of the UK, for example, average land prices for residential use have risen from £275,000 per hectare in 1983 to £2.49 million in 2002; in Inner and Outer London, the rise was even more dramatic with prices rising from £759,000 to £5.49 million per hectare. Compare this to Wales, where the price for a hectare in 1983 was £85,000 and rose to £980,000 by 2002. A recent report by real estate business DTZ noted that the West End of London was the most expensive place in the world to rent office space. They reported that the average cost per workstation area stood at £12,001. Hong Kong came in second at £10,170.

DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES AND INWARD INVESTMENT
UK Regional policy in recent years has changed its emphasis. The UK's membership of the EU has been a part of this. The approach is to have a coordinated policy with the EU to help each region achieve its full economic potential but at the same time to allow decision-making to be devolved to the lowest level, where possible. This means that the regions themselves will take a lead in encouraging economic development and supporting businesses in their region.

PHYSICAL FACTORS[2]:
Raw materials: The factory needs to be close to these if they are heavy and bulky to transport.

Energy supply: This is needed to work the machines in a factory. Early industries were near to coalfields. Today, electricity allows more freedom.

Natural Routes: River valleys and flat areas were essential in the days before railways and motorways made the movement of materials easier.

Site and Land: Most industries require large accessible areas of cheap, flat land on which to build their factories.

HUMAN AND ECONOMIC FACTORS[3]:
Labour: A large cheap labour force is required for labour-intensive manufacturing industries. High-tech industries have to locate where suitable skilled workers are available.

Market: An accessible place to sell the products is essential for many industries i.e. those that produce bulky, heavy goods that are expensive to transport; those that produce perishable or fragile goods; those that provide services to people. The market is not so important for other industries such as high-tech whose products are light in weight and cheap to transport. Such industries are said to be 'footloose'.

Transport: A good transport network helps reduce costs and make the movement of materials easier.

Cost of land: Greenfield sites in rural areas are usually cheaper than Brownfield sites in the city.

Capital: This is the money that is invested to start the business. The amount of capital will determine the size and location of the factory. Government policies: Industrial development is encourages in some areas and restricted in others.

LOCATION OF RESIDENTIAL AREA[4]:
A residential area is a land use in which housing predominates, as different from industrial and commercial areas. Housing may vary significantly between, and through, residential areas. These include single family housing, multiple family housing such as (apartments, duplexes, townhomes (or similar configurations), condominiums) or mobile homes. Zoning for residential use may permit some services or work opportunities or may totally exclude business and industry. It may permit high density land use or only permit low density uses.

Residential zoning usually includes a smaller FAR (floor to area ratio) than business, commercial or industrial/manufacturing zoning. The area may also be large or small. In certain residential areas, largely rural, quite large tracts of land may exist which have no services whatsoever. Because a large distance must be traveled to access the nearest services, most journeys involve using a motor vehicle or some other form of transport. This need has resulted in Residential land development usually existing or planned infrastructure such as rail and road. The pattern of development is usually set forth in the restrictive covenants contained in the deeds to the properties in the development, but may also result from or be reinforced by zoning. Restrictive covenants are not easily changed as the agreement of all property owners (many of whom may not live in the area) may need to be obtained to effect a change. The area may also be large or small. Residential Differentiation are some of the various zones under which Residential Areas fall i.e. inner city residential, inner mixed zone, established residential, new development, urban-rural fringe, rural residential, sub-regional centers.

Residential development is the dominant land-use within the City, [5] offering residents a high quality and much sought after residential environment and providing some of the finest residential streets. The leafy tree lined streets and the variety of housing type and style create a most appealing environment. The concentration of high quality community services, together with proximity to the centre of city and the good access to public transport, are necessary attraction for people who wish to live there. A more accurate prediction can be made of the types of housing required to satisfy the diverse characteristics of our population when further research in the form of a detailed "Residential Housing Needs Strategy" is undertaken. There has also been a trend for many non-residential uses to locate or “creep” into our residential areas. Some existing non-residential uses (such as schools) are considered integral to the residential area, providing a service to local residents, and sometimes broader population, but their growth has the potential to create traffic and other amenity problems and to displace housing. Concerning the location of new housing it is imperative to maintain and increase housing choice and diversity within existing residential areas. Increase residential development opportunities (including higher density development) in and around commercial centres and other strategic locations. Protect existing housing stock and residential use. Encourage a high standard of residential development. Minimise the impact of institutions and other non-residential uses on their surrounding areas. Minimise the impact of commercial/industrial uses in areas adjoining residential and other sensitive uses. “There are no specific socialist types of land use distribution of new housing, internal organisation of residential blocks, or location of companies. Even the principle goal of socialist city planning to locate new residential areas closed to working areas has been pursued in western planning too.”[6] Thus; the residential areas shall be located in such a way in any city that may fulfill the functions of living working and recreation of a family. Furthermore; there are variety of housing types such as low income middle income and high income housing whereas; the location of each of these housing types subject to the level of affordability of a family to live within close proximity to city center or in the outskirts of the city.

REFERENCES:

[1] http://www.bized.co.uk/learn/economics/notes/location.htm
[2] http://geographyfieldwork.com/IndustryLocationFactors.htm
[3] http://geographyfieldwork.com/IndustryLocationFactors.htm
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residential_area
[5] http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/planningschemes/boroondara/ordinance/21_mss07_boro.pdf
[6] Gregory D. Andrusz, Michael Harloe, Iván Szelényi (1995) “Cities after Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post – Socialists Societies” From http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=8bGjNy2sOuAC&pg=PA73&lpg=PA73&dq=Where+to+locate+the+residential+areas+in+a+city%3F&source=bl&ots=Ptz5P_F6hk&sig=tDneq6YY2u2b7s80HXIZ5aJqoA0&hl=en&ei=eaAKSrC0HImMkAWu-LCnCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1

LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS, CIVIC CENTERS, COMMERCIAL CENTERS, LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B)
By
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi

LECTURE NO: 23
TOPIC: LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS, CIVIC CENTERS, COMMERCIAL CENTERS, LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS

INTRODUCTION:
In order to understand the theme of current lecture i.e. location of public and semi-public buildings, civic centers, commercial centers, local shopping centers and public schools; it is imperative to identify the meaning and interpretation of location, location theory, building, building types, and public property as mentioned above. Whereas; it is also important to clearly spell out, the activity generated via these building types. Afterwards; it will be eminent that where these building types and their activities shall be located within an urban context. In the following all these issues are discussed in details.

WHAT IS MEANT BY LOCATION?
Location in geography is one of the five geographic themes and a specific position or point in physical space that be exact and relative. In geography, location is a position or point in physical space that something occupies on Earths' surface. An absolute location is the exact spot where something is on the earth. An example would be the longitude and latitude of a place. An absolute location is the coordinates on a grid that leads to an exact spot somewhere on earth. Absolute location can also be the exact spot where something is within a city, such as saying that the Department of Architecture and Planning NED University is at intersection of Burns road and Kachehry road. Relative location is where something is in relation to something else. For example: By the NIPA, two miles from NED University main campus.

LOCATION THEORY:
In town planning location theory is quite significant theme especially in the context of urban economics. The reason for its significance is quite evident when a town planner place or decide about a particular building type at some particular location in an urban context. Because; location theory is concerned with the geographic location of an economic activity; it has become an integral part of economic geography, regional science, and spatial economics. Location theory addresses the questions of what economic activities are located where and why. Location theory rests — like microeconomic theory generally — on the assumption that agents act in their own self interest. Thus firms choose locations that maximize their profits and individuals choose locations that maximize their utility.

LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS:
A public space refers to an area or place that is open and accessible to all citizens, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, age or socio-economic level. The example of public space is the place for commons (or Ghareeb Awam). For example, no fees or paid tickets are required for entry, nor are the entrants discriminated based on background. Non-government-owned private sector malls are examples of 'private space' with the appearance of being 'public space' because; poor people avoid or hesitate in entering into such malls. The term 'Public Space' is also often misconstrued to mean other things such as 'gathering place' which is an element of the larger concept. Most streets, including the pavement are considered public space, as are town squares or parks. Government buildings, such as public libraries and many other similar buildings are also public space. However, not all state-owned buildings fall under such a definition. Some parks, malls, waiting rooms, etc, are closed at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is generally not considered a restriction on public use.

Entry to public parks can be restricted based upon a user's residence. In the United States, one's presence in a public space may give him or her certain rights not otherwise vested. In a public space, known as a public forum, the government cannot usually limit one's speech beyond what is reasonable (that is, screaming epithets at passers-by can be stopped; proselytizing one's religion probably cannot). In a private space—that is, non-public—forum, the government can control one's speech to a much greater degree; for instance, protesting one's objection to medicare reform will not be tolerated in the Pentagon. This is not to say that the government can control what you say in your own home or to others; it can only control government property in this way. In some cases, privately-owned property can be considered a public forum. England, too, has a tradition of public spaces permitting public speech, at Speakers' Corner, for example. In general, there is no expectation of privacy in a public space. Eating and drinking in an outside public place during Ramadan in an Islamic country is sometimes not appreciated.

Public spaces are attractive for budget tourists and homeless people, especially those that are relatively comfortable, e.g. a shopping center that provides shelter and, in a cold climate, is heated (or cooled in a hot climate). Whilst it is generally considered that everyone has a right to access and use public space, as opposed to private space which may have restrictions, there has been some academic interest in how public spaces are managed to exclude certain groups - specifically homeless people and young people. Measures are taken to make the public space less attractive to them, including the removal or design of benches to restrict their use for sleeping and resting, restricting access to certain times, locking indoor/enclosed areas. Police forces are sometimes involved in moving 'unwanted' members of the public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled people are implicitly excluded from some spaces. Further, beginning roughly in the 1960s, the wholesale privatization of public space (especially in urban centers) has become a fact of western society, and has faced criticism from citizen groups such as the Open Spaces Society. Private-public partnerships have taken significant control of public parks and playgrounds through conservancy groups set up to manage what is considered unmanageable by public agencies.

Corporate sponsorship of public leisure areas is ubiquitous, giving open space to the public in exchange for higher air rights. This facilitates the construction of taller buildings with private parks; accessible only to those deemed fit. In one of the newer incarnations of the private-public partnership, the business improvement district (BID), private organizations are allowed to tax local businesses and retail establishments so that they might provide special private services such as policing and increased surveillance, trash removal, or street renovation, all of which once fell under the control of public funds and thus public interests. Clearly these services are necessary; the methods by which they are provided can be debated but not their ultimate utility. Additionally, public areas facilitate public interaction, and their existence can scarcely be questioned in democratic states; we may debate how they are provided, but to question their utility would seem to question our basic rights. Privatization of public amenities should not go unnoticed, whether in this form or the tacit co-opting of sights and sounds known as advertising.

A broader meaning of public space or place includes also places where everybody can come if they pay, like a café, train, movie theater or brothel. A shop is an example of what is intermediate between the two meanings: everybody can enter and look around without obligation to buy, but activities unrelated to the purpose of the shop are not unlimitedly permitted. The halls and streets (including skyways) in a shopping center may be declared a public place and may be open when the shops are closed. Similarly for halls, railway platforms and waiting rooms of public transport; sometimes a travelling ticket is required. A public library is also more or less a public place. A rest stop or truck stop is a public space. For these semi-public spaces stricter rules may apply than outside, e.g. regarding dress code, trading, begging, advertising, propaganda, riding rollerskates, skateboards, a Segway, etc. Typical differences between a public space and a private space are illustrated by comparing sitting on a public bench and sitting on a seat in a sidewalk cafe: In the first case, usage costs nothing, in the second it requires a purchase to be made. In the first case, there is no time limitation (though loitering laws might apply), while in the second, money has to be spent at certain intervals. In the first case, one is allowed to consume brought-along food and drink (alcohol consumption laws may restrict this), in the second case, this is usually prohibited. In the first case, only general laws apply in terms of dress (such as prohibition of public nudity) and other aspects of public decency, in the second, stricter rules (such as a prohibition of being shirtless) may apply.

Thus the location of public and semi public buildings in the city can be at any suitable place where accessibility of all citizens and availability of public and private transport can be ensured.

LOCATION OF CIVIC CENTERS:
A civic center or civic centre is a prominent land area within a community that is constructed to be its focal point or center. It usually contains one or more dominant public buildings, which may also include a government building. Recently, the term "civic center" has been used in reference to an entire central business district of a community or a major shopping center in the middle of a community. In this type of civic center, special attention is paid to the way public structures are grouped and landscaped. In some American cities, a multi-purpose arena is named "Civic Center", for example Columbus Civic Center. Such "Civic Centers" combine venues for sporting events, theaters, concerts and similar events. In most cases civic centers in the UK are a focus for local government offices and public service buildings.

With reforms of local government in London in 1965 and across England in anticipation of the implementation of the Redcliffe-Maud Report in 1974, a number of local authorities commissioned new civic centers sometimes funded by disposing of their 19th Century Town Hall buildings. In case of Karachi the civic center is a building located in the center of the city and contains activities such as municipal institutions, development authority, utility institutions, banks, airline offices, city district government offices to serve the people of Karachi.

Thus civic centers must be centrally located in city where they are accessible from all parts of the city at equidistance if possible.

LOCATION OF COMMERCIAL CENTERS:
Commercial Centers (also called Downtowns, Central Business Districts, and Urban Villages) contain a concentration of business, civic and cultural activities, creating conditions that facilitate interaction and exchange. This increases overall Accessibility. Vibrant commercial centers have the following attributes:

• DENSITY AND CLUSTERING: Commercial centers should be medium to high density; with multi-story buildings. Densities of 50 employees or more per gross acre are desirable. As much as possible the ground floor of buildings should have activities and services that involve frequent public interaction (such as retail, professional services, civic offices, etc.), with office or residential activities above, which creates an attractive street environment while accommodating dense employment.

• DIVERSITY: Centers contain a diverse mix of office and retail space, banks and law offices, public institutions (such as city hall, courthouses, and other government offices), entertainment and arts activities, and other suitable industries. Increasingly, commercial centers also have residential buildings, either within or nearby.

• LOCAL AND REGIONAL IMPORTANCE: Commercial Centers should contain a significant portion of total regional employment and business activity.

• WALKABILITY: Most Commercial Centers are less than 250 acres in size so all destinations are within about 10-minute walk, with good sidewalks and pathways, pedestrian shortcuts, attractive Streetscapes, pedestrian scale and orientation, relatively narrow streets (4 lanes or less is desirable), relatively slow vehicle traffic (30 miles-per-hour or less is desirable), Universal Design, and a high degree of pedestrian Security. Some have Pedways, which are indoor walking networks that connect buildings and transportation terminals.

• TRANSPORTATION DIVERSITY: The area should be accessible by walking, cycling, taxi, automobile, and public transit.

• PARKING MANAGEMENT: In order to avoid the need to devote a large portion of land to parking, Commercial Centers require that parking be managed for efficiency (Manfille and Shoup, 2004) It is often appropriate to use structured or underground parking, and to limit the total amount of parking in a commercial center.

• TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT: This refers to districts designed with features that facilitate transit accessibility, with maximum developing within convenient walking distance of Attractive Transit Stations.

There are many types of Commercial Centers, ranging from Downtowns (also called Central Business Districts or CBDs), which are the primary Commercial Center serving a region, to Secondary Business Districts and Village Centers. A large Central Business District can contain thousands of businesses with tens of thousands of employees, while a local village center may be considered successful if it has a dozen businesses with two or three hundred employees. Some have a particular base or specialty, such as a cluster of medical facilities, a wholesale district, a tourist district, or an adjacent university campus, but such centers include a diverse range of businesses providing support services.

Business activities tend to be more efficient in a Commercial Center that contains related industries, because clustering allows convenient interaction between staff, and convenient access to the services they use. A typical business district contains offices for finance, insurance, real estate, law and research companies, government agencies, plus various support services such as stationary retailers, janitorial services and computer supplies. This allows more specialization, for example, lawyers that specialize in a particular subject, translators who support trade and cultural activities with a particular region, and suppliers of specialty equipment for a particular industry. Commercial Centers also contain conference centers, hotels and other types of meeting facilities. As a result, people working in such areas can meet with several colleagues each day (a banker, a lawyer, a translator) with minimal time spent traveling. This high degree of accessibility that occurs when related industries are clustered together tends to increase economic productivity, called Economies of Agglomeration.

Strong Commercial Centers are an important component of Smart Growth and New Urbanism. Many central business districts and nearby neighborhoods are experiencing new residential development in the form of high- and medium-density condominiums and apartments, townhouses, and small-lot single-family homes. Urban living is particularly popular among young adults and retirees. Market surveys indicate that about a third of home buyers would prefer to live in mixed-use new urbanist community if available (Hirschhorn, 2001). Some central business districts are still losing business and population, but there are numerous indications that, with proper support, downtowns can be successful and provide numerous economic, social and environmental benefits.

Transportation planning decisions have significant impacts on the success of Commercial Centers. Walking, Public Transit and Parking Management are particularly important, and Commute Trip Reduction programs tend to be particularly effective. Public Bike Systems increase the convenience of cycling in downtown areas.

People who work, shop and live in a Commercial Center can satisfy many of their daily needs without using an automobile. For example, employees who work in the area will find a diverse range of cafes and restaurants for refreshments and meals, shops that sell daily items (such as groceries, books and stationary goods) and more specialized items (such as gifts, clothing and hardware). Similarly, a vibrant Commercial Center contains medical and dental services, gyms for exercise, daycare facilities, and other types of services. It is therefore beneficial to locate affordable housing near Commercial Districts, so non-drivers have convenient access to such services, called Location Efficient Development.

Commercial Centers are an alternative to more Automobile Dependent commercial land use patterns, such as suburban strips (activities are scattered along major arterials, which requires a car trip between each destination), and private malls or campuses (which have a high degree of internal walkability, but are generally surrounded by large parking facilities, are widely dispersed, and contain a limited range of activities, and so tend to require numerous automobile trips).

Residents living in or near Commercial Centers tend to own fewer cars than residents of more dispersed, isolated areas (Land Use Impacts on Transportation). People who work in major centers tend to commute by transit significantly more than those who work in more dispersed locations, and they tend to drive less for errands (Ewing, Pendall and Chen, 2002). While; about 90% of the suburban employees drive to work, but this declines to about 50% among downtown employees (even less in cities with major transit systems).

Franks and Pivo (1995) found that automobile commuting declines significantly when workplace densities reach 50 75 employees per gross acre, since this tends to support transit and ridesharing commutes, and improved access to local services, such as nearby coffee shops and stores. Because activities and people are concentrated, road and parking Congestion tend to be relatively intense in major Commercial Centers, but because people use alternative modes and travel shorter distances, particularly for businesses meetings, per capita traffic congestion costs tends to be lower. Commute trips may be somewhat longer if employment is concentrated in a central business district. For this reason, many urban planners believe that the most efficient urban land use pattern is to have a Central Business District that contains the highest level business activities “main offices” and smaller Commercial Centers with retail and “back offices” scattered around the city among residential areas.

A commercial building is a type of building that is used for commercial use. These can include office buildings, warehouses, or retail (i.e. convenience stores, 'big box' stores, shopping malls, etc.). In urban locations, a commercial building often combines functions, such as an office on levels 2-10, with retail on floor 1. All municipalities / cities / regions maintain strict regulations on commercial type zoning, and have the authority to designate any zoned area as such. A business must be located inside of an area zoned at least partially for commerce to operate a business in (and out of) a commercial building.

LOCATION OF LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS:
A shopping mall or shopping centre is a building or set of buildings which contain retail units, with interconnecting walkways enabling visitors to easily walk from unit to unit. Strip malls have developed since the 1920s, corresponding to the rise of suburban living in the United States after World War II. In the United Kingdom, these are called retail parks, out-of-town shopping centers, or precincts. In most of the world the term shopping centre is used, especially in Europe and Australasia; however shopping mall is also used, predominantly in North America. Shopping precinct and shopping arcade are also used. In North America, the term shopping mall is usually applied to enclosed retail structures (and may be abbreviated to simply mall) while shopping centre usually refers to open-air retail complexes.

Malls in Ireland, pronounced "maills", are very small shopping centres placed in the centre of town. They average about twenty years in age, with a mix of local shops and chain stores. These malls do not have shops found in the high street or modern shopping centres. Shopping centres in the United Kingdom can be referred to as "shopping centres", "shopping precincts", or "town centres".

A strip mall (also called a shopping plaza or mini-mall) is an open area shopping center where the stores are arranged in a row, with a sidewalk in front. Strip malls are typically developed as a unit and have large parking lots in front. They face major traffic arterials and tend to be self-contained with few pedestrian connections to surrounding neighborhoods. Strip malls vary widely in architecture. Older strip malls tend to have plain architecture with the stores arranged in a straight row; in some cases there are vacant stores. Newer strip malls are often built with elaborate architecture to blend in with the neighborhood and to attract the upscale consumer. In some cases, strip malls are broken up into smaller buildings to establish a more appropriate sense of scale and to create architectural articulation. A current trend with the purpose of screening the parking lot from the street and nearby residences is locating the buildings with little to no setback from the street. Some stores may allow for entrances from both the street sidewalk and the parking lot. Due to land use issues, strip malls in the United Kingdom are typically found on the edges of cities on Greenfield land sites, and are known as "out of town shopping centres". Those in more urban areas (often Brownfield land redeveloped sites) are more typically known as retail parks.

LOCATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS:
The term public school has two distinct (and virtually opposite) meanings depending on the location of usage. In the United States, Australia and Canada: A school funded from tax revenue and most commonly administered to some degree by government or local government agencies. This usage is synonymous with its British English equivalent, state school. In the United Kingdom and a few other Commonwealth countries: A traditional privately operated secondary school which usually requires the payment of fees for its pupils, and is often a boarding school. This usage is common in the United Kingdom (although can be ambiguous in Scotland). These schools, wherever located, often follow a British educational tradition and are committed in principle to public accessibility. Originally, many were single-sex boarding schools, but most independent schools are now co-educational with both boarders and day-pupils. This usage is synonymous with preparatory school in American English, though preparatory school in British English has a different meaning. Public-school education is the most common form of education in the United States and is provided mainly by local governments, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. Curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards by jurisdiction over school districts. The school districts are special-purpose districts authorized by provisions of state law. Generally, state governments can and do set minimum standards relating to almost all activities of primary and secondary schools, as well as funding and authorization to enact local school taxes to support the schools -- primarily through real property taxes. The federal government funds aid to states and school districts that meet minimum federal standards. School accreditation decisions are made by voluntary regional associations. The first tax-supported public school in America was in Dedham, Massachusetts. The vast majority of adults born in the U.S. have attended a U.S. public school.

Public school is normally split up into three stages: primary (elementary) school (kindergarten to 4th or 5th or 6th grade), junior high (also "intermediate", or "middle") school (5th or 6th or 7th to 8th or 9th) and high school (9th or 10th to 12th, somewhat archaically also called "secondary school"), with some less populated communities incorporating high school as 7th to 12th. Some Junior High Schools (Intermediate Schools) contain 7th to 9th grades or 7th and 8th, in which case the High School is 10th to 12th or 9th to 12th respectively. The middle school format is increasing in popularity, in which the Elementary School contains kindergarten through 5th grade and the Middle School contains 6th through 8th grade. In addition, some elementary schools are splitting into two levels, sometimes in separate buildings: Primary (usually K-2) and Intermediate (3-4 or 3-5). Some middle schools consist of only 7th and 8th grades. The K-8th format is also an emerging popular concept, in which students may attend only two schools for all of their K-12 education. Many charter schools feature the K-8 format in which all primary grades are housed in one section of the school while the traditional junior high school aged students are housed in another section of the school. Some very small school districts, primarily in rural areas, still maintain a K-12 system in which all students are housed in a single school.

In the United States, institutions of higher education that are operated and subsidized by U.S. states are also referred to as "public." However, unlike public secondary schools, public universities charge tuition, though these fees are usually much lower than those charged by private universities, particularly for "in-state" students. Community colleges, state colleges, and state universities are examples of public institutions of higher education. In particular, many state universities are regarded as among the best institutions of higher education in the U.S., though usually they are surpassed in ranking by certain private universities and colleges, such as those of the Ivy League, which are often very expensive and extremely selective in the students they accept. In several states, the administrations of public universities are elected via the general electoral ballot.

Thus the location of public school may vary in each context i.e. it may be located within city center in old city down town areas or in the outskirts of the city in more natural environments.

REFERENCES:
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38. Main Street Center (www.mainstreet.org) provides information on ways to revitalize traditional commercial areas through historic preservation and grassroots-based economic development.
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41. National Trust for Historic Preservation (www.nationaltrust.org) focuses on preserving downtown areas and historic buildings.
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44. Project for Public Spaces (www.pps.org) works to create and sustain public places that build communities. It provides a variety of resources for developing more livable communities.
45. San Francisco Planning and Urban Research Association (SPUR) (www.spur.org) is a leading organization doing research to develop more livable urban areas.
46. SGN (2002 and 2004), Getting To Smart Growth: 100 Policies for Implementation, and Getting to Smart Growth II: 100 More Policies for Implementation, Smart Growth Network (www.smartgrowth.org) and International City/County Management Association (www.icma.org).
47. Toolbox for Regional Policy Analysis Website (www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/toolbox/index.htm) by the US Federal Highway Administration, describes analytical methods for evaluating regional economic, social and environmental impacts of various transportation and land use policies.
48. Urban Land Institute (www.uli.org) is a professional organization for developers, which provides practical information on innovative development practices, including infill and sustainable community planning.
49. Urban Renaissance Institute (www.urban-renaissance.org) works to help cities and their regions flourish by applying innovative market-based policies.
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