NATURAL RESOURCES

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B)
By:
RAVINDAR KUMAR
Assistant Professor
Department of Architecture and Planning
NED University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi

LECTURE NO. 08
TOPIC: NATURAL RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION:
The theme of current lecture is Natural Resources. In the following a detailed description about natural resources is given for the understanding of students learning town planning.

WHAT IS MEANT BY NATURAL RESOURCES?

Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A commodity is generally considered a natural resource when the primary activities associated with it are extraction and purification, as opposed to creation. Thus, mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, and forestry are generally considered natural-resource industries, while agriculture is not.

The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher in his 1970s book Small Is Beautiful.[1] Afterwards; different authors used this phrase for different purposes and interpreted it in their own manner. For instance in United States natural resources are described as:

“Land, fish, wildlife, biota, air, water, groundwater, drinking water supplies, and other such resources (including the resources of the exclusive economic zone) belonging to, managed by, held in trust by, appertaining to, or otherwise controlled by, the United States, any state or local government or Indian tribe, or any foreign government.”[2]

Similarly other defintions are:

“Assets that are physically consumed or waste away, such as oil, minerals, gravel, and timber can be said as natural resources.”[3]
“A material source of wealth, such as timber, fresh water, or a mineral deposit, that occurs in a natural state and has economic value.[4]
“Materials found in the natural state, such as water, soil, sunshine, minerals, that are used by humans.”[5]
“Any part of the environment that species depend on for their survival can be termed as natural resources.”[6]

CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:

Natural resources are often classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. The renewable resources may be further categorized as unconditionally renewable (e.g., solar, tidal or wind energy) and conditionally renewable (e.g., fish, forest products). Conditionally renewable resources will last indefinitely if not over-exploited because that part of the resource that is used can be replaced through natural processes.[7]

Furthermore; renewable resources are generally living resources such as fish, coffee, and forests etc. which can restock (renew) themselves if they are not over harvested. Renewable resources can be used indefinitely if they are used sustainably or if not over harvested. Once renewable resources are consumed at a rate that exceeds their natural rate of replacement, the standing stock will diminish and eventually run out. The rate of sustainable use of a renewable resource is determined by the replacement rate and amount of standing stock of that particular resource. Non-living renewable natural resources include soil, as well as water, wind, tides and solar radiation.”[8]

NATURAL RESOURCES AND TOWN PLANNING:

In case of town planning the understanding of natural resources is very important. Because; the end product of any town planning exercise is the construction of new built up structures on a virgin land or in other words change of natural environment into built environment as per future needs. The other outcome of town planning is the reconstruction of the existing old built up structures or in other words transforming the built environment to suit the needs of present time. In both cases there emerge major changes and transformations in the physical appearance and character of the existing context. These changes and transformations may occur in the form of large movements of soil (sand and stones) from one place to another to be used as building material. Grubbing of natural vegetation and trees from a virgin land in a given context to be use inside buildings. Thus; these changes and transformations may cause various impacts such as change in ground water pattern, bearing capacity of soils etc.

Furthermore; the towns, cities and urban areas attracts large number of population that live and work there and consume lots of natural resources such as oil and gas. Large high rise buildings also exist in urban context that requires a lot of building material and natural resources and also become cause of urban heat islands.

Additionally in town planning many mega construction projects are made that require major changes in the ecology of land, terrains, soils, vegetation, rivers, storm water drains, coastal belt etc. This change and transformation may be carefully analyzed through Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Social Impact Assessment (SIA), Visual Impact Assessment (VIA); Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment (LVSIA) etc. So as the town planning may be sustainable.

Initial Environmental Examination (IEE):
IEE is a preliminary attempt to evaluate environmental impacts in order to determine whether a full-scale environmental impact assessment is needed. It is also called as Initial Environmental Investigation (IEI), partial EIA or "Preliminary EIA".[9]

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
A process by which, the consequences of planned development projects are evaluated as an integral part of planning the project. The EIA can be defined as the analysis of biological, physical, social and economic factors to determine the environmental and social consequences of a proposed development action. The goal of the EIA is to provide policy makers with the best available information in order to minimize economic costs and maximize benefits associated with a proposed development.[10]

Social Impact Assessment (SIA):
It is the component of EIA concerned with changes in the structure and functioning of social orderings. In particular the changes that a development would create in: social relationships; community (population, structure, stability etc); people’s quality and way of life; language; ritual; political/economic processes; attitudes/value. Can sometimes include health impacts.[11] "Social impact assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects) and any social change processes invoked by those interventions. Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment."[12] “This technique is a form of direct impact analysis used to assess how the costs and benefits of reforms are distributed among different stakeholders and over time. SIA is based on stakeholder analysis, and is particularly useful for disaggregating data on assets (physical, financial) and capabilities (human, organizational) into meaningful social categories. When reasonable national survey data exists, SIA uses a range of qualitative data collection tools (focus groups, semi-structured key informant interviews, ethnographic field research, stakeholder workshops to determine impacts, stakeholder preferences and priorities, and constraints on implementation. In the absence of adequate quantitative data, SIA supplements qualitative, sociological impact analysis with purposive surveys that capture direct impacts and behavioral responses to reform, or specific dimensions (e.g. time-use patterns) that affect reform outcomes.”[13]

Visual impact assessment:[14]
It is an evaluation of the visual impact of resource development proposals on forest landscape.

Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment:[15]
Landscape and visual impacts are two separate but closely related elements. ‘Landscape’ refers to the appearance of the land, including its, shape, texture and colours. It also reflects the way these components combine to create specific patterns and pictures that are distinctive to certain areas. Landscape is not just a visual, phenomenon it relies on a number of other features/influences that will have shaped its character. For example topography, geology, ecology, land management and architecture all play a part in the formation of a landscape.

TOWN PLANNING IN THE 1900S IN UNITED KINGDOM (UK):[16]
The significance of resources in town planning can be further understood through a brief historical background of Town Planning in the 1900s in United Kingdom. At the turn of the century, legislation continued to improve conditions for the industrial work force.

This included

Town Planning Act 1909, which forbade the building of back-to-back housing, symbolic of the poverty of the industrial cities, and allowed local authorities to prepare schemes of town planning

Housing Act 1919, which gave the Ministry of Health authority to approve the design of houses

Housing Act 1930, which required all slum housing to be cleared in designated improvement areas

Around this time, the Garden Cities movement was formed under the influence of Sir Ebenezer Howard, a visionary who took public health reform further by planning to build green cities on the principle that: 'by so laying out a Garden City that, as it grows, the free gifts of 'Nature fresh air, sunlight, breathing room and playing room shall be still retained in all needed abundance.' This eventually led to the New Towns movement and the New Towns Act 1946 although, by the time new towns were being built, the rise of the privately owned motor car had made much of Howard's vision unattainable.

Pressure on the countryside:
With all the new housing, the rise of the motorcar and continued industrial development, the countryside came under increasing pressure. For example, between 1919 and 1939 over four million new homes were built, the majority on green fields, and advertising hoardings sprung up unregulated across the landscape. In response to this threat, the need for planning controls to be extended to cover the countryside as well as towns was recognised and in 1926 the Council for the Preservation of Rural England was formed later renamed the Campaign to Protect Rural England. As pressure was put on the Government to take action, two important acts of Parliament were passed:

Town and Country Planning Act 1932, which was the first legislation to accept the desirability of countrywide rural planning

Restriction of Ribbon Development Act 1935, which was designed to prevent the sprawl of towns and cities across the countryside. 'Ribbon development' is linear development of long rows of buildings built along main roads leading out of towns

Town and country planning comes of age:
The end of the Second World War brought consensus over the need for comprehensive planning to rebuild bombed out towns and cities and to help reorganise industry. The Town and Country Planning Act 1947 introduced the basis of the system that we have today. It introduced two significant changes i.e. Local authorities now had to complete a local plan, setting out detailed policies and specific proposals for the development and use of land in a district. Land use would be controlled and planning permission would be required for development.

However some sectors, such as agriculture, were granted significant exemptions from planning controls, called permitted development rights, which still exist today. After the 1947 Act, the system continued to evolve. Important events include

1955: The national Green Belt system is put in place to prevent urban sprawl (the first Green Belts were designated around London before the Second World War

1968: County structure plans are introduced to co-ordinate and guide local plans

1988: Regional planning guidance is introduced to act as a strategic guide for county structure plans

1990: The Town and Country Planning Act 1990. The act divides planning into forward planning and development control. Forward planning is about setting out the authority's strategy for the future - through a development plan - and development control is about controlling the development that happens

1991: The Planning and Compensation Act 1991 amends the Town and Country Planning Act and introduces the plan-led system, affirming that planning applications should be decided in line with the development plan

Conclusion:
Finally it is clearly spelled out that the understanding about natural resources is quite significant in any town planning exercise.

References:
[1] http://www.cheathouse.com/essay/essay_view.php?p_essay_id=77556
[2] http://www.epa.gov/Region6/6sf/sfsites/oil/acryglos.htm
[3] http://www.berenson.com/n.html
[4] http://www.mms.gov/offshore/alternativeenergy/definitions.htm
[5] http://www.arrowheadkidscamp.com/images/GLOSSARY_OF_SCIENCE_TERMS.doc
[6] http://www.pc.gc.ca/apprendre-learn/prof/sub/eco/itm7/index_e.asp
[7] http://www.oceansatlas.org/unatlas/uses/uneptextsph/infoph/gsglossary.html
[8] http://www.cheathouse.com/essay/essay_view.php?p_essay_id=77556
[9] http://www.fao.org/docrep/V8350E/v8350e0f.htm
[10] http://www.oceansatlas.org/unatlas/uses/uneptextsph/infoph/gsglossary.html
[11] http://eia.unu.edu/course/?page_id=177
[12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_assessment
[13] http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTPOVERTY/EXTPSIA/0,,contentMDK:20433436~menuPK:2453409~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:490130,00.html [14] http://ilmbwww.gov.bc.ca/slrp/datamanagement/glossary/V.HTM
[15] http://www.shetland.gov.uk/developmentplans/documents/Landscape.pdf
[16] http://www.planninghelp.org.uk/planning-system/history-of-planning-system/town-planning-in-1900s